Social enrichment on the job: Complex work with people improves episodic memory, promotes brain reserve, and reduces the risk of dementia
Corresponding Author
Max E. Coleman
Department of Sociology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
Department of Sociology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA
Correspondence
Max Coleman, Department of Sociology, Indiana University Bloomington, 1020 E. Kirkwood Ave, Ballantine Hall 740, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA.
Email: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorMeghan E. H. Roessler
Department of Sociology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA
Marian University College of Osteopathic Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
Search for more papers by this authorSiyun Peng
Department of Sociology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA
Search for more papers by this authorAdam R. Roth
Department of Sociology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA
Search for more papers by this authorShannon L. Risacher
Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
Search for more papers by this authorAndrew J. Saykin
Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
Departments of Neurology, Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
Search for more papers by this authorLiana G. Apostolova
Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
Departments of Neurology, Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
Search for more papers by this authorBrea L. Perry
Department of Sociology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Max E. Coleman
Department of Sociology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
Department of Sociology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA
Correspondence
Max Coleman, Department of Sociology, Indiana University Bloomington, 1020 E. Kirkwood Ave, Ballantine Hall 740, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA.
Email: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorMeghan E. H. Roessler
Department of Sociology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA
Marian University College of Osteopathic Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
Search for more papers by this authorSiyun Peng
Department of Sociology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA
Search for more papers by this authorAdam R. Roth
Department of Sociology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA
Search for more papers by this authorShannon L. Risacher
Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
Search for more papers by this authorAndrew J. Saykin
Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
Departments of Neurology, Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
Search for more papers by this authorLiana G. Apostolova
Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
Departments of Neurology, Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
Search for more papers by this authorBrea L. Perry
Department of Sociology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA
Search for more papers by this authorAbstract
Individuals with more complex jobs experience better cognitive function in old age and a lower risk of dementia, yet complexity has multiple dimensions. Drawing on the Social Networks in Alzheimer Disease study, we examine the association between occupational complexity and cognition in a sample of older adults (N = 355). A standard deviation (SD) increase in complex work with people is associated with a 9% to 12% reduction in the probability of mild cognitive impairment or dementia, a 0.14–0.19 SD increase in episodic memory, and a 0.18–0.25 SD increase in brain reserve, defined as the gap (residual) between global cognitive function and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) indicators of brain atrophy. In contrast, complexity with data or things is rarely associated with cognitive outcomes. We discuss the clinical and methodological implications of these findings, including the need to complement data-centered activities (e.g., Sudoku puzzles) with person-centered interventions that increase social complexity.
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST STATEMENT
Andrew J. Saykin: Avid Radiopharmaceuticals, a subsidiary of Eli Lilly, provided Saykin with the in-kind contribution of a PET-tracer precursor to Indiana University. Liana G. Apostolova: Received consulting fees from Biogen, NIH Biobank, Two Labs, Eli Lilly, IQVIA, GE Healthcare, Florida Department of Health, Eisai, Genentech, and Roche Diagnostics; holds stock or stock options in Cassava Neurosciences and Golden Seeds; and has received equipment from Avid Radiopharmaceuticals, Life Molecular Imaging, and Roche Diagnostics. All other authors have no conflict of interest to disclose. Author disclosures are available in the supporting information.
Supporting Information
| Filename | Description |
|---|---|
| alz13035-sup-0001-SuppMat.docx17.2 KB | Supporting Information |
Please note: The publisher is not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting information supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing content) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article.
REFERENCES
- 1Fujishiro K, MacDonald LA, Crowe M, McClure LA, Howard VJ, Wadley VG. The role of occupation in explaining cognitive functioning in later life: education and occupational complexity in a US national sample of black and white men and women. J Gerontol B. 2019; 74(7): 1189-1199.
- 2Parker SK. Beyond motivation: job and work design for development, health, ambidexterity, and more. Annu Rev Psychol. 2014; 65: 661-691.
- 3Boots EA, Schultz SA, Almeida RP, et al. Occupational complexity and cognitive reserve in a middle-aged cohort at risk for Alzheimer's disease. Arch Clin Neuropsychol. 2015; 30(7): 634-642.
- 4Scarmeas N, Stern Y. Cognitive reserve and lifestyle. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2003; 25(5): 625-633.
- 5Miller J. Individual and occupational determinants of job satisfaction: a focus on gender differences. Sociol Work Occup. 1980; 7(3): 337-366.
- 6Gecas V, Seff MA. Social class, occupational conditions, and self-esteem. Sociol Perspect. 1989; 32(3): 353-364.
- 7Kohn, Melvin. Change and Stability: A Cross-National Analysis of Social Structure and Personality. Paradigm Publishers; 2006.
- 8Tudor B. A specification of relationships between job complexity and powerlessness. Am Sociol Rev. 1972; 37(5): 596-604.
- 9Kohn ML, Schooler C. Occupational experience and psychological functioning: an assessment of reciprocal effects. Am Sociol Rev. 1973; 38(1): 97-118.
- 10Miller AR, Treiman DJ, Cain PS, Roos PA. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of Occupational Titles. National Academy Press; 1980.
- 11Finkel D, Andel R, Gatz M, Pedersen NL. The role of occupational complexity in trajectories of cognitive aging before and after retirement. Psychol Aging. 2009; 24(3): 563.
- 12Aiello LC, Dunbar RI. Neocortex size, group size, and the evolution of language. Curr Anthropol. 1993; 34(2): 184-193.
- 13Dunbar RI. The social brain hypothesis. Evol Anthropol. 1998; 6(5): 178-190.
- 14Christakis N. Blueprint: The Evolutionary Origins of a Good Society. Little, Brown Spark; 2019.
- 15Immordino-Yang MH, Darling-Hammond L, Krone CR. Nurturing nature: how brain development is inherently social and emotional, and what this means for education. Educ Psychol. 2019; 54(3): 185-204.
- 16Wexler B. Brain and Culture: Neurobiology, Ideology, and Social Change. MIT Press; 2006.
10.7551/mitpress/1658.001.0001 Google Scholar
- 17Hebb DO. The effects of early experience on problem-solving at maturity. Am Psychol. 1947; 2: 306-307.
- 18Rosenzweig MR, Bennett EL, Hebert M, Morimoto H. Social grouping cannot account for cerebral effects of enriched environments. Brain Res. 1978; 153(3): 563-576.
- 19Sale A, Berardi N, Maffei L. Enrich the environment to empower the brain. Trends Neurosci. 2009; 32(4): 233-239.
- 20Van Praag H, Kempermann G, Gage FH. Neural consequences of enviromental enrichment. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2000; 1(3): 191-198.
- 21Smith BM, Yao X, Chen KS, Kirby ED. A larger social network enhances novel object location memory and reduces hippocampal microgliosis in aged mice. Front Aging Neurosci. 2018; 10: 142. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2018.00142
- 22Toyoshima M, Yamada K, Sugita M, Ichitani Y. Social enrichment improves social recognition memory in male rats. Anim Cogn. 2018; 21: 345-351.
- 23Moreno-Jiménez EP, Jurado-Arjona J, Ávila J, Llorens-Martín M. The social component of environmental enrichment is a pro-neurogenic stimulus in adult c57BL6 female mice. Front Cell Dev Biol. 2019; 7: 62.
- 24Brenes JC, Lackinger M, Höglinger GU, Schratt G, Schwarting RK, Wöhr M. Differential effects of social and physical environmental enrichment on brain plasticity, cognition, and ultrasonic communication in rats. J Comp Neurol. 2016; 524(8): 1586-1607.
- 25Kozorovitskiy Y, Gross CG, Kopil C, et al. Experience induces structural and biochemical changes in the adult primate brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci. USA. 2005; 102(48): 17478-17482.
- 26Sánchez MM, Hearn EF, Do D, Rilling JK, Herndon JG. Differential rearing affects corpus callosum size and cognitive function of rhesus monkeys. Brain Res. 1998; 812(1-2): 38-49.
- 27Reuter-Lorenz PA, Park DC. How does it STAC up? Revisiting the scaffolding theory of aging and cognition. Neuropsychol Rev. 2014; 24(3): 355-370.
- 28Charles ST, Carstensen LL. Social and emotional aging. Annu Rev Psychol. 2010; 61: 383-409.
- 29Kiesow H, Uddin LQ, Bernhardt BC, Kable J, Bzdok D. Dissecting the midlife crisis: disentangling social, personality and demographic determinants in social brain anatomy. Commun Biol. 2021; 4(1): 1-7.
- 30Tooley UA, Bassett DS, Mackey AP. Environmental influences on the pace of brain development. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2021; 22(6): 372-384.
- 31Chan MY, Na J, Agres PF, Savalia NK, Park DC, Wig GS. Socioeconomic status moderates age-related differences in the brain's functional network organization and anatomy across the adult lifespan. Proc Natl Acad Sci. USA. 2018; 115(22): E5144-E5153.
- 32Noble KG, Houston SM, Brito NH, et al. Family income, parental education and brain structure in children and adolescents. Nat Neurosci. 2015; 18(5): 773-778.
- 33Farah MJ. The neuroscience of socioeconomic status: correlates, causes, and consequences. Neuron. 2017; 96(1): 56-71.
- 34Yaple ZA, Yu R. Functional and structural brain correlates of socioeconomic status. Cereb Cortex. 2020; 30(1): 181-196.
- 35Salinas J, O'Donnell A, Kojis DJ, et al. Association of social support with brain volume and cognition. JAMA Netw Open. 2021; 4(8):e2121122.
- 36Dunbar RI. The social brain meets neuroimaging. Trends Cogn Sci. 2012; 16(2): 101-102.
- 37Kwak S, Joo WT, Youm Y, Chey J. Social brain volume is associated with in-degree social network size among older adults. Proc R Soc B. 285:20172708.doi:10.1098/rspb.2017.2708
- 38Von Der Heide R, Vyas G, Olson IR. The social network-network: size is predicted by brain structure and function in the amygdala and paralimbic regions. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci. 2014; 9(12): 1962-1972.
- 39Powell J, Lewis PA, Roberts N, Garcia-Finana M, Dunbar RI. Orbital prefrontal cortex volume predicts social network size: an imaging study of individual differences in humans. Proc R Soc. 2012; 279: 2157-2162
- 40Fratiglioni L, Paillard-Borg S, Winblad B. An active and socially integrated lifestyle in late life might protect against dementia. Lancet Neurol. 2004; 3(6): 343-353.
- 41Gow AJ, Corley J, Starr JM, Deary IJ. Which social network or support factors are associated with cognitive abilities in old age? Gerontol. 2013; 59(5): 454-463.
- 42Kelly ME, Duff H, Kelly S, et al. The impact of social activities, social networks, social support and social relationships on the cognitive functioning of healthy older adults: a systematic review. Syst Rev. 2017; 6(1): 259.
- 43Kuiper JS, Zuidersma M, Zuidema SU, et al. Social relationships and cognitive decline: a systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal cohort studies. Int J Epidemiol. 2016; 45(4): 1169-1206.
- 44Perry BL, McConnell WR, Coleman ME, Roth AR, Peng S, Apostolova LG. Why the cognitive “fountain of youth” may be upstream: pathways to dementia risk and resilience through social connectedness. Alzheimer's Dement. 2022; 18(5): 934-941.
- 45Barnes LL, De Leon CM, Wilson RS, Bienias JL, Evans DA. Social resources and cognitive decline in a population of older African Americans and Whites. Neurol. 2004; 63(12): 2322-2326.
- 46Zunzunegui MV, Alvarado BE, Del Ser T, Otero A. Social networks, social integration, and social engagement determine cognitive decline in community-dwelling Spanish older adults. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci. 2003; 58(2): S93-S100.
- 47Holtzman RE, Rebok GW, Saczynski JS, Kouzis AC, Wilcox Doyle K, Eaton WW. Social network characteristics and cognition in middle-aged and older adults. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci. 2004; 59(6): P278-P284.
- 48Cornwell B. Network bridging potential in later life: life-course experiences and social network position. J Aging Health. 2009; 21(1): 129-154.
- 49Li M, Dong X. Is social network a protective factor for cognitive impairment in US Chinese older adults? Findings from the PINE study. Gerontol. 2018; 64(3): 246-256.
- 50Perry BL, McConnell WR, Peng S, et al. Social networks and cognitive function: an evaluation of social bridging and bonding mechanisms. Gerontologist. 2022; 62(6): 865-875.
- 51Esiri MM, Matthews F, Brayne C, et al. Pathological correlates of late-onset dementia in a multicentre, community-based population in England and Wales. Lancet. 2001; 357(9251): 169-175.
- 52Whalley LJ, Deary IJ, Appleton CL, Starr JM. Cognitive reserve and the neurobiology of cognitive aging. Ageing Res Rev. 2004; 3(4): 369-382.
- 53Esiri MM, Chance SA. Cognitive reserve, cortical plasticity and resistance to Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimer's Res Ther. 2012; 4(2): 1-8.
- 54Andel R, Crowe M, Pedersen NL, et al. Complexity of work and risk of Alzheimer's disease: a population-based study of Swedish twins. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci. 2005; 60(5): P251-P258.
- 55Andel R, Kåreholt I, Parker MG, Thorslund M, Gatz M. Complexity of primary lifetime occupation and cognition in advanced old age. J Aging Health. 2007; 19(3): 397-415.
- 56Karp A, Andel R, Parker MG, Wang HX, Winblad B, Fratiglioni L. Mentally stimulating activities at work during midlife and dementia risk after age 75: follow-up study from the Kungsholmen Project. Am J Geriatr Psychiatr. 2009; 17(3): 227-236.
- 57Kröger E, Andel R, Lindsay J, Benounissa Z, Verreault R, Laurin D. Is complexity of work associated with risk of dementia? The Canadian Study of Health and Aging. Am J Epidemiol. 2008; 167(7): 820-830.
- 58Hussenoeder FS, Riedel-Heller SG, Conrad I, Rodriguez FS. Concepts of mental demands at work that protect against cognitive decline and dementia: a systematic review. Am J Health Promotion. 2019; 33(8): 1200-1208.
- 59Correa Ribeiro PC, Lopes CS, Lourenço RA. Complexity of lifetime occupation and cognitive performance in old age. Occup Med. 2013; 63(8): 556-562.
- 60Dekhtyar S, Wang HX, Scott K, Goodman A, Koupil I, Herlitz A. A life-course study of cognitive reserve in dementia—from childhood to old age. Am J Geriatr Psychiatr. 2015; 23(9): 885-896.
- 61Smart EL, Gow AJ, Deary IJ. Occupational complexity and lifetime cognitive abilities. Neurol. 2014; 83(24): 2285-2291.
- 62Sörman DE, Stenling A, Sundström A, it al. Occupational cognitive complexity and episodic memory in old age. Intell. 2021; 89:101598.
- 63Andel R, Vigen C, Mack WJ, Clark LJ, Gatz M. The effect of education and occupational complexity on rate of cognitive decline in Alzheimer's patients. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2006; 12(1): 147-152.
- 64Vélez-Coto M, Andel R, Pérez-García M, Caracuel A. Complexity of work with people: associations with cognitive functioning and change after retirement. Psychol Aging. 2021; 36(2): 143.
- 65Lane AP, Windsor TD, Andel R, Luszcz MA. Is occupational complexity associated with cognitive performance or decline? Results from the Australian Longitudinal Study of Ageing. Gerontol. 2017; 63(6): 550-559.
- 66Nexø MA, Meng A, Borg V. Can psychosocial work conditions protect against age-related cognitive decline? Results from a systematic review. Occup Environ Med. 2016; 73(7): 487-496.
- 67Weintraub S, Salmon D, Mercaldo N, et al. The Alzheimer's disease centers’ uniform data set (UDS): the neuropsychological test battery. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord. 2009; 23(2): 91.
- 68Stern Y, Arenaza-Urquijo EM, Bartrés-Faz D, et al. Whitepaper: Defining and investigating cognitive reserve, brain reserve, and brain maintenance. Alzheimer's Dement. 2020; 16(9): 1305-1311.
- 69Peng S, Roth AR, Apostolova LG, Saykin AJ, Perry BL. Cognitively stimulating environments and cognitive reserve: the case of personal social networks. Neurobiol Aging. 2022; 112: 197-203.
- 70Plassman BL, Langa KM, Fisher GG, et al. Prevalence of dementia in the United States: the aging, demographics, and memory study. Neuroepidemiol. 2007; 29(1-2): 125-132.
- 71Cummings J, Ritter A, Zhong K. Clinical trials for disease-modifying therapies in Alzheimer's disease: a primer, lessons learned, and a blueprint for the future. J Alzheimer's Dis. 2018; 64(suppl 1): S3-S22.
- 72Geda YE, Topazian HM, Lewis RA, et al. Engaging in cognitive activities, aging, and mild cognitive impairment: a population-based study. J Neuropsychiatr Clin Neurosci. 2011; 23(2): 149-154.
- 73Lachman ME, Agrigoroaei S, Murphy C, Tun PA. Frequent cognitive activity compensates for education differences in episodic memory. Am J Geriatr Psychiatr. 2010; 18(1): 4-10.
- 74Ridding M. What is ‘cognitive reserve’? How we can protect our brains from memory loss and dementia. Conversat. 2017. https://theconversation.com/what-is-cognitive-reserve-how-we-can-protect-our-brains-from-memory-loss-and-dementia-76591
- 75Roth AR. Social networks and health in later life: a state of the literature. Sociol Health Illn. 2020; 42(7): 1642-1656.
- 76Roos PA, Treiman DJ. DOT scales for the 1970 Census classification. In AR Miller, DJ Treiman, PS Cain, PA Roos, Eds. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of Occupational Titles. National Academy Press; 1980: 336-389.
- 77 U.S. Department of Labor. Dictionary of Occupational Titles. 4th ed. U.S. Government Printing Office; 1977.
- 78Allison PD. Missing Data. Sage Publication, Inc.; 2002.
10.4135/9781412985079 Google Scholar
- 79Enders C. Applied Missing Data Analysis. Guilford Press; 2010.
- 80Gonzales E, Whetung C, Lee YJ, Kruchten R. Work demands and cognitive health inequities by race and ethnicity: a scoping review. The Gerontol. 2022; 62(5): e282-e292.
Citing Literature
